Module creusot_contracts::std::io

Traits, helpers, and type definitions for core I/O functionality.

The std::io module contains a number of common things you’ll need when doing input and output. The most core part of this module is the Read and Write traits, which provide the most general interface for reading and writing input and output.

Read and Write

Because they are traits, Read and Write are implemented by a number of other types, and you can implement them for your types too. As such, you’ll see a few different types of I/O throughout the documentation in this module: Files, TcpStreams, and sometimes even Vec<T>s. For example, Read adds a read method, which we can use on Files:

use std::io;
use std::io::prelude::*;
use std::fs::File;

fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    let mut buffer = [0; 10];

    // read up to 10 bytes
    let n = f.read(&mut buffer)?;

    println!("The bytes: {:?}", &buffer[..n]);
    Ok(())
}

Read and Write are so important, implementors of the two traits have a nickname: readers and writers. So you’ll sometimes see ‘a reader’ instead of ‘a type that implements the Read trait’. Much easier!

Seek and BufRead

Beyond that, there are two important traits that are provided: Seek and BufRead. Both of these build on top of a reader to control how the reading happens. Seek lets you control where the next byte is coming from:

use std::io;
use std::io::prelude::*;
use std::io::SeekFrom;
use std::fs::File;

fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    let mut buffer = [0; 10];

    // skip to the last 10 bytes of the file
    f.seek(SeekFrom::End(-10))?;

    // read up to 10 bytes
    let n = f.read(&mut buffer)?;

    println!("The bytes: {:?}", &buffer[..n]);
    Ok(())
}

BufRead uses an internal buffer to provide a number of other ways to read, but to show it off, we’ll need to talk about buffers in general. Keep reading!

BufReader and BufWriter

Byte-based interfaces are unwieldy and can be inefficient, as we’d need to be making near-constant calls to the operating system. To help with this, std::io comes with two structs, BufReader and BufWriter, which wrap readers and writers. The wrapper uses a buffer, reducing the number of calls and providing nicer methods for accessing exactly what you want.

For example, BufReader works with the BufRead trait to add extra methods to any reader:

use std::io;
use std::io::prelude::*;
use std::io::BufReader;
use std::fs::File;

fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    let f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    let mut reader = BufReader::new(f);
    let mut buffer = String::new();

    // read a line into buffer
    reader.read_line(&mut buffer)?;

    println!("{buffer}");
    Ok(())
}

BufWriter doesn’t add any new ways of writing; it just buffers every call to write:

use std::io;
use std::io::prelude::*;
use std::io::BufWriter;
use std::fs::File;

fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    let f = File::create("foo.txt")?;
    {
        let mut writer = BufWriter::new(f);

        // write a byte to the buffer
        writer.write(&[42])?;

    } // the buffer is flushed once writer goes out of scope

    Ok(())
}

Standard input and output

A very common source of input is standard input:

use std::io;

fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    let mut input = String::new();

    io::stdin().read_line(&mut input)?;

    println!("You typed: {}", input.trim());
    Ok(())
}

Note that you cannot use the ? operator in functions that do not return a Result<T, E>. Instead, you can call .unwrap() or match on the return value to catch any possible errors:

use std::io;

let mut input = String::new();

io::stdin().read_line(&mut input).unwrap();

And a very common source of output is standard output:

use std::io;
use std::io::prelude::*;

fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    io::stdout().write(&[42])?;
    Ok(())
}

Of course, using io::stdout directly is less common than something like println!.

Iterator types

A large number of the structures provided by std::io are for various ways of iterating over I/O. For example, Lines is used to split over lines:

use std::io;
use std::io::prelude::*;
use std::io::BufReader;
use std::fs::File;

fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    let f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    let reader = BufReader::new(f);

    for line in reader.lines() {
        println!("{}", line?);
    }
    Ok(())
}

Functions

There are a number of functions that offer access to various features. For example, we can use three of these functions to copy everything from standard input to standard output:

use std::io;

fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    io::copy(&mut io::stdin(), &mut io::stdout())?;
    Ok(())
}

io::Result

Last, but certainly not least, is io::Result. This type is used as the return type of many std::io functions that can cause an error, and can be returned from your own functions as well. Many of the examples in this module use the ? operator:

use std::io;

fn read_input() -> io::Result<()> {
    let mut input = String::new();

    io::stdin().read_line(&mut input)?;

    println!("You typed: {}", input.trim());

    Ok(())
}

The return type of read_input(), io::Result<()>, is a very common type for functions which don’t have a ‘real’ return value, but do want to return errors if they happen. In this case, the only purpose of this function is to read the line and print it, so we use ().

Platform-specific behavior

Many I/O functions throughout the standard library are documented to indicate what various library or syscalls they are delegated to. This is done to help applications both understand what’s happening under the hood as well as investigate any possibly unclear semantics. Note, however, that this is informative, not a binding contract. The implementation of many of these functions are subject to change over time and may call fewer or more syscalls/library functions.

I/O Safety

Rust follows an I/O safety discipline that is comparable to its memory safety discipline. This means that file descriptors can be exclusively owned. (Here, “file descriptor” is meant to subsume similar concepts that exist across a wide range of operating systems even if they might use a different name, such as “handle”.) An exclusively owned file descriptor is one that no other code is allowed to access in any way, but the owner is allowed to access and even close it any time. A type that owns its file descriptor should usually close it in its drop function. Types like File own their file descriptor. Similarly, file descriptors can be borrowed, granting the temporary right to perform operations on this file descriptor. This indicates that the file descriptor will not be closed for the lifetime of the borrow, but it does not imply any right to close this file descriptor, since it will likely be owned by someone else.

The platform-specific parts of the Rust standard library expose types that reflect these concepts, see os::unix and os::windows.

To uphold I/O safety, it is crucial that no code acts on file descriptors it does not own or borrow, and no code closes file descriptors it does not own. In other words, a safe function that takes a regular integer, treats it as a file descriptor, and acts on it, is unsound.

Not upholding I/O safety and acting on a file descriptor without proof of ownership can lead to misbehavior and even Undefined Behavior in code that relies on ownership of its file descriptors: a closed file descriptor could be re-allocated, so the original owner of that file descriptor is now working on the wrong file. Some code might even rely on fully encapsulating its file descriptors with no operations being performed by any other part of the program.

Note that exclusive ownership of a file descriptor does not imply exclusive ownership of the underlying kernel object that the file descriptor references (also called “open file description” on some operating systems). File descriptors basically work like Arc: when you receive an owned file descriptor, you cannot know whether there are any other file descriptors that reference the same kernel object. However, when you create a new kernel object, you know that you are holding the only reference to it. Just be careful not to lend it to anyone, since they can obtain a clone and then you can no longer know what the reference count is! In that sense, OwnedFd is like Arc and BorrowedFd<'a> is like &'a Arc (and similar for the Windows types). In particular, given a BorrowedFd<'a>, you are not allowed to close the file descriptor – just like how, given a &'a Arc, you are not allowed to decrement the reference count and potentially free the underlying object. There is no equivalent to Box for file descriptors in the standard library (that would be a type that guarantees that the reference count is 1), however, it would be possible for a crate to define a type with those semantics.

Modules

• prelude
  The I/O Prelude.

Structs

• BufReader
  The BufReader<R> struct adds buffering to any reader.
• BufWriter
  Wraps a writer and buffers its output.
• Bytes
  An iterator over u8 values of a reader.
• Chain
  Adapter to chain together two readers.
• Cursor
  A Cursor wraps an in-memory buffer and provides it with a Seek implementation.
• Empty
  Empty ignores any data written via Write, and will always be empty (returning zero bytes) when read via Read.
• Error
  The error type for I/O operations of the Read, Write, Seek, and associated traits.
• IntoInnerError
  An error returned by BufWriter::into_inner which combines an error that happened while writing out the buffer, and the buffered writer object which may be used to recover from the condition.
• IoSlice
  A buffer type used with Write::write_vectored.
• IoSliceMut
  A buffer type used with Read::read_vectored.
• LineWriter
  Wraps a writer and buffers output to it, flushing whenever a newline (0x0a, '\n') is detected.
• Lines
  An iterator over the lines of an instance of BufRead.
• Repeat
  A reader which yields one byte over and over and over and over and over and…
• Sink
  A writer which will move data into the void.
• Split
  An iterator over the contents of an instance of BufRead split on a particular byte.
• Stderr
  A handle to the standard error stream of a process.
• StderrLock
  A locked reference to the Stderr handle.
• Stdin
  A handle to the standard input stream of a process.
• StdinLock
  A locked reference to the Stdin handle.
• Stdout
  A handle to the global standard output stream of the current process.
• StdoutLock
  A locked reference to the Stdout handle.
• Take
  Reader adapter which limits the bytes read from an underlying reader.
• WriterPanicked
  Error returned for the buffered data from BufWriter::into_parts, when the underlying writer has previously panicked. Contains the (possibly partly written) buffered data.
• BorrowedBufExperimental
  A borrowed byte buffer which is incrementally filled and initialized.
• BorrowedCursorExperimental
  A writeable view of the unfilled portion of a BorrowedBuf.

Enums

• ErrorKind
  A list specifying general categories of I/O error.
• SeekFrom
  Enumeration of possible methods to seek within an I/O object.

Traits

• BufRead
  A BufRead is a type of Reader which has an internal buffer, allowing it to perform extra ways of reading.
• IsTerminal
  Trait to determine if a descriptor/handle refers to a terminal/tty.
• Read
  The Read trait allows for reading bytes from a source.
• Seek
  The Seek trait provides a cursor which can be moved within a stream of bytes.
• Write
  A trait for objects which are byte-oriented sinks.

Functions

• copy
  Copies the entire contents of a reader into a writer.
• empty
  Creates a value that is always at EOF for reads, and ignores all data written.
• read_to_string
  Read all bytes from a reader into a new String.
• repeat
  Creates an instance of a reader that infinitely repeats one byte.
• sink
  Creates an instance of a writer which will successfully consume all data.
• stderr
  Constructs a new handle to the standard error of the current process.
• stdin
  Constructs a new handle to the standard input of the current process.
• stdout
  Constructs a new handle to the standard output of the current process.

Type Aliases

• Result
  A specialized Result type for I/O operations.
• RawOsErrorExperimental
  The type of raw OS error codes returned by Error::raw_os_error.